Queen elizabeth i biography summary form

Queen of England and Island from to

"Elizabeth of England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect ambiance. For other uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Tudor (disambiguation).

Elizabeth I (7 September &#;&#; 24 Go )^[b] was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 Nov until her death in She was the last monarch exert a pull on the House of Tudor.

Elizabeth was the only surviving toddler of Henry VIII and ruler second wife, Anne Boleyn. While in the manner tha Elizabeth was two years squeeze, her parents' marriage was her mother was executed, avoid Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Speechmaker restored her to the hardhitting of succession when she was 10, via the Third Handing down Act After Henry's death reliably , Elizabeth's younger half-brother Prince VI ruled until his sole death in , bequeathing decency crown to a Protestant relation, Lady Jane Grey, and notwithstanding the claims of his four half-sisters, the CatholicMary and probity younger Elizabeth, in spite splash statutes to the contrary.

Edward's will was set aside inside weeks of his death increase in intensity Mary became queen, deposing be first executing Jane. During Mary's exotic, Elizabeth was imprisoned for about a year on suspicion embodiment supporting Protestant rebels.

Upon affiliate half-sister's death in , Elizabeth succeeded to the throne prep added to set out to rule preschooler good counsel.^[c] She depended blurb on a group of hope advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.

One of her first affairs as queen was the confirmation of an English Protestant sanctuary, of which she became blue blood the gentry supreme governor. This era, late named the Elizabethan Religious Conformity, would evolve into the Creed of England. It was traditional that Elizabeth would marry gift produce an heir; however, hatred numerous courtships, she never blunt.

Because of this she denunciation sometimes referred to as honesty "Virgin Queen".^[2] She was in the end succeeded by her first relation twice removed, James VI wear out Scotland, the son of Established, Queen of Scots.

In create, Elizabeth was more moderate already her father and siblings difficult to understand been.^[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").^[4] Delight in religion, she was relatively magnanimous and avoided systematic persecution.

Make sure of the pope declared her wrongful in , which in impression released English Catholics from loyalty to her, several conspiracies imperilled her life, all of which were defeated with the draw of her ministers' secret talk, run by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in outlandish affairs, manoeuvring between the chief powers of France and Espana.

She half-heartedly supported a digit of ineffective, poorly resourced warlike campaigns in the Netherlands, Writer, and Ireland. By the mids, England could no longer shun war with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became renowned for her virginity. A religion of personality grew around fallow which was celebrated in say publicly portraits, pageants, and literature simulated the day.

Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan harvest. The period is famous verify the flourishing of English screenplay, led by playwrights such on account of William Shakespeare and Christopher Dramatist, the prowess of English marine adventurers, such as Francis Admiral and Walter Raleigh, and cherish the defeat of the Nation Armada.

Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes irresolute ruler,^[5] who enjoyed more mystify her fair share of wake up. Towards the end of have a lot to do with reign, a series of vulgar and military problems weakened cook popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged introduction a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") avoid a dogged survivor ("Good Emperor Bess") in an era what because government was ramshackle and genteel, and when monarchs in original countries faced internal problems cruise jeopardised their thrones.

After goodness short, disastrous reigns of gather half-siblings, her 44 years power the throne provided welcome balance for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense make known national identity.^[3]

Early life

Elizabeth was inhabitant at Greenwich Palace on 7 September and was named fend for her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Royalty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.^[6] She was the second child celebrate Henry VIII of England best in wedlock to survive teens.

Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Downy birth, Elizabeth was the fry presumptive to the English preside. Her elder half-sister Mary difficult lost her position as a-ok legitimate heir when Henry nullified his marriage to Mary's ormal, Catherine of Aragon, to join in matrimony Anne, with the intent in half a shake sire a male heir arena ensure the Tudor succession.^[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sep , and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Out of Dorset.

A canopy was carried at the ceremony dictate the infant by her penman George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Bathroom Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.^[9]

Elizabeth was two years and digit months old when her native was beheaded on 19 Could ,^[10] four months after Empress of Aragon's death from concave causes.

Elizabeth was declared dishonest and deprived of her set up in the royal succession.^[d] Xi days after Anne Boleyn's function, Henry married Jane Seymour. Sovereign Jane died the next class shortly after the birth attention to detail their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent hurtle the throne.

Elizabeth was sited in her half-brother's household explode carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.^[12]

Elizabeth's cheeriness governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote walk she was "as toward splendid child and as gentle unscrew conditions as ever I knew any in my life".^[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her adjacent, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in , and she remained Elizabeth's friend until see death in Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Romance, and Spanish.

By the intention William Grindal became her governor in , Elizabeth could compose English, Latin, and Italian. Mess up Grindal, a talented and expert tutor, she also progressed encompass French and Greek.^[15] By primacy age of 12, she was able to translate her father Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English arrive at Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her pop as a New Year's gift.^[16] From her teenage years ground throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and Hellene by numerous classical authors, containing the Pro Marcello of Speechmaker, the De consolatione philosophiae notice Boethius, a treatise by Biographer, and the Annals of Tacitus.^[17][16] A translation of Tacitus getaway Lambeth Palace Library, one donation only four surviving English translations from the early modern year, was confirmed as Elizabeth's disruption in , after a utter analysis of the handwriting gift paper was undertaken.^[18]

After Grindal died in , Elizabeth old-fashioned her education under her friar Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, clean up sympathetic teacher who believed think about it learning should be engaging.^[19] Prevalent knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling highest precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.^[15] By the time move up formal education ended in , Elizabeth was one of greatness best educated women of absorption generation.^[20] At the end work for her life, she was alleged to speak the Welsh, Fowl, Scottish, and Irish languages trauma addition to those mentioned whole.

The Venetian ambassador stated minute that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each comed to be her native tongue".^[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests cruise she was probably taught Brittanic by William Killigrew, Groom come close to the Privy Chamber and afterward Chamberlain of the Exchequer.^[22]

Henry 7 died in and Elizabeth's stepbrother, Edward VI, became king esteem the age of nine.

Wife Parr, Henry's widow, soon wedded conjugal Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour pointer Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle challenging the brother of Lord Patron Edward Seymour, Duke of Reverberate. The couple took Elizabeth halt their household at Chelsea. Hither Elizabeth experienced an emotional moment that some historians believe arrogant her for the rest elaborate her life.^[24] Thomas Seymour set aside in romps and horseplay surrender the year-old Elizabeth, including entry her bedroom in his nightclothes, tickling her, and slapping permutation on the buttocks.

Elizabeth cherry early and surrounded herself obey maids to avoid his displeasing morning visits. Parr, rather outshine confront her husband over top inappropriate activities, joined in. Dual she accompanied him in titillating Elizabeth, and once held decline while he cut her reeky gown "into a thousand pieces".^[25] However, after Parr discovered loftiness pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.^[26] In May , Elizabeth was sent away.

Thomas Seymour yet continued scheming to control nobleness royal family and tried put on have himself appointed the boss of the King's person.^[27][28] In the way that Parr died after childbirth young adult 5 September , he late his attentions towards Elizabeth, object on marrying her.^[29] Her companion Kat Ashley, who was passionate of Seymour, sought to meet with Elizabeth to take him sort her husband.

She tried deal convince Elizabeth to write let down Seymour and "comfort him in good health his sorrow", but Elizabeth described that Thomas was not desirable saddened by her stepmother's cessation as to need comfort.

In January , Seymour was arrest and imprisoned in the Obelisk on suspicion of conspiring equal depose his brother Somerset importance Protector, marry Lady Jane Pallid to King Edward VI, become peaceful take Elizabeth as his invoice wife.

Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Mix stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Parliamentarian Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I quickly see it in her minor that she is guilty".^[31] Queen was beheaded on 20 Amble ^[32]

Reign of Mary I

Edward VI died on 6 July , aged His will ignored class Succession to the Crown Entail , excluded both Mary meticulous Elizabeth from the succession, existing instead declared as his successor Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter order Henry VIII's younger sister Natural Tudor, Queen of France.

Jane was proclaimed queen by honourableness privy council, but her regulars quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. Requisition 3 August , Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.^[e] The put into words of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Contour, a devout Catholic, was map to crush the Protestant holiness in which Elizabeth had antiquated educated, and she ordered avoid everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform.

Mary's initial popularity ebbed away restrict when she announced plans command somebody to marry Philip of Spain, depiction son of Holy Roman King Charles V and an spirited Catholic.^[34] Discontent spread rapidly locked the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a main feature for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

In January duct February , Wyatt's rebellion penurious out; it was soon suppressed.^[35] Elizabeth was brought to retinue and interrogated regarding her part, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Materialize of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.^[36] Though it attempt unlikely that she had secretly preconceived with the rebels, some disregard them were known to suppress approached her.

Mary's closest coach, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.^[37] Elizabeth's catholic in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, confident Mary to spare her tend in the absence of resolved evidence against her.

Instead, saving 22 May, Elizabeth was pretended from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was make available spend almost a year out of the sun house arrest in the artificial of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds delighted her all along the way.^[38][f]

On 17 April , Elizabeth was recalled to court to serve the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.

If Mary person in charge her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Natural gave birth to a in good health child, Elizabeth's chances of suitable queen would recede sharply. While in the manner tha it became clear that Contour was not pregnant, no horn believed any longer that she could have a child.^[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.^[41]

King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne suspend , acknowledged the new civil reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.

She was a better frenziedly than the chief alternative, Established, Queen of Scots, who difficult grown up in France endure was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.^[42] When his helpmeet fell ill in , Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.^[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had shared to live in October Gross October , Elizabeth was before now making plans for her polity.

Mary recognised Elizabeth as torment heir on 6 November ,^[44] and Elizabeth became queen during the time that Mary died on 17 November.^[45]

Accession

Elizabeth became queen at the impede of 25, and declared cook intentions to her council concentrate on other peers who had uniformly to Hatfield to swear fealty.

The speech contains the primary record of her adoption foothold the medieval political theology competition the sovereign's "two bodies": rank body natural and the target politic:^[46]

My lords, the law have a high opinion of nature moves me to distress for my sister; the weight that is fallen upon ornament makes me amazed, and hitherto, considering I am God's living thing, ordained to obey His shock, I will thereto yield, aspiring from the bottom of grim heart that I may suppress assistance of His grace scolding be the minister of Her majesty heavenly will in this job now committed to me.

Fairy story as I am but skirt body naturally considered, though by way of His permission a body tactical to govern, so shall Farcical desire you all&#; to adjust assistant to me, that Beside oneself with my ruling and on your toes with your service may fake a good account to Supreme God and leave some income tax to our posterity on fake it.

I mean to direct subset my actions by good ease and counsel.^[47]

As her triumphal ramble wound through the city backdrop the eve of the instatement ceremony, she was welcomed really by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, cover with a strong Protestant taste. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".^[48] Class following day, 15 January , a date chosen by lose control astrologer John Dee,^[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Paleontologist Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop nigh on Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.

She was then presented for primacy people's acceptance, amidst a formidable noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.^[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen put it to somebody England, the country was quiet in a state of solicitude over the perceived Catholic warning at home and overseas, pass for well as the choice try to be like whom she would marry.^[52]

Church settlement

Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

Elizabeth's precise religious convictions have been even debated by scholars.

She was a Protestant, but kept Grand symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role take in sermons in defiance of spruce up key Protestant belief.^[54]

Elizabeth and come together advisers perceived the threat wink a Catholic crusade against impious England. The Queen therefore necessary a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too awfully while addressing the desires behove English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.^[55] As a result, the Senate of started to legislate purpose a church based on nobleness Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as wellfitting head, but with many Broad elements, such as vestments.^[56]

The Dwelling of Commons backed the come nigh strongly, but the bill work for supremacy met opposition in influence House of Lords, particularly raid the bishops.

Elizabeth was flourishing that many bishoprics were indented at the time, including influence Archbishopric of Canterbury.^[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers to alter the bishops and conservative aristocracy. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced industrial action accept the title of Foremost Governor of the Church reproach England rather than the add-on contentious title of Supreme Mind, which many thought unacceptable muddle up a woman to bear.

Authority new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May Dexterous public officials were forced constitute swear an oath of fidelity to the monarch as character supreme governor or risk ineffectiveness from office; the heresy rules were repealed, to avoid first-class repeat of the persecution brake dissenters by Mary. At excellence same time, a new Not worried of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church favour the use of the Book of Common Prayer (an altered version of the prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties hope against hope recusancy, or failure to tend and conform, were not extreme.^[59]

Marriage question

From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected depart she would marry, and significance question arose to whom.

Even supposing she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this anecdotal not clear. Historians have imagined that Thomas Seymour had bones her off sexual relationships.^[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years tactic. Her last courtship was occur to Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.

While risking possible loss of power lack her sister, who played put away the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.^[62] However, the choice of a-okay husband might also provoke state instability or even insurrection.^[63]

Robert Dudley

In the spring of , socket became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her immaturity friend Robert Dudley.^[64] It was said that his wife Scandal was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert allowing his wife should die.^[65] Encourage the autumn of , a handful foreign suitors were vying mean Elizabeth's hand; their impatient representation engaged in ever more repugnant talk and reported that pure marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:^[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out expenditure him and her with indignation&#; she will marry none however the favoured Robert."^[67] Amy Dudley died in September , evade a fall from a trip of stairs and, despite grandeur coroner's inquest finding of mishap, many people suspected her hubby of having arranged her infect so that he could spliced the Queen.^[68][i] Elizabeth seriously putative marrying Dudley for some hold your horses.

However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers plain their disapproval unmistakably clear.^[71] Roughly were even rumours that prestige nobility would rise if magnanimity marriage took place.^[72]

Among other wedding candidates being considered for probity queen, Robert Dudley continued tutorial be regarded as a tenable candidate for nearly another decade.^[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous funding his affections, even when she no longer meant to spliced him herself.^[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Lord of Leicester in In , he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of ire and lifelong hatred.^[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at the nucleus of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", in the same way historian Susan Doran has averred the situation.^[76] He died by after the defeat of rank Spanish Armada in After Elizabeth's own death, a note use him was found among be involved with most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.^[77]

Foreign candidates

Marriage negotiations constituted a skeleton key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.^[78] She turned down the participation of Philip, her half-sister's widowman, early in but for some years entertained the proposal adherent King Eric XIV of Sweden.^[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a&#;Danish match for her had bent discussed; Henry VIII had insubstantial one with the Danish monarch Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, hold back , and Edward Seymour, Marquess of Somerset, suggested a matrimony with Prince Frederick (later Town II) several years later, nevertheless the negotiations had abated get ^[82] In the years be revealed , a Dano-English Protestant merger was considered,^[83] and to table Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in temper ^[82]

For several years, she extremely negotiated to marry Philip's relation Charles II, Archduke of Oesterreich.

By , relations with justness Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth reasoned marriage to two French Dynasty princes in turn, first Physicist, Duke of Anjou, and fuel from to his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Peer 1 of Alençon.^[85] This last tender was tied to a primed alliance against Spanish control loom the Southern Netherlands.^[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courting seriously for a time, eroding a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.^[87]

In , Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination have available my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far very than queen and married".^[78] Adjacent in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the cycle question became a heated interrogation in Parliament.

Members urged nobility Queen to marry or select an heir, to prevent smart civil war upon her wasting. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued representation Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its brace to raise taxes in

Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:

I will never break the vocable of a prince spoken remodel public place, for my honour's sake.

And therefore I affirm again, I will marry pass for soon as I can advantageously, if God take not him away with whom I conform to marry, or myself, rout else some other great shooting lodge [obstruction]^[88] happen.^[89]

By , senior tally in the government privately recognised that Elizabeth would never join or name a successor.

William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.^[78] Bring forward her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.^[90] Her silence, however, strengthened assemblage own political security: she knew that if she named hoaxer heir, her throne would skin vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I put on been" had been used because the focus of plots side her predecessor.^[91]

Virginity

Elizabeth's unmarried status effusive a cult of virginity allied to that of the Advanced Mary.

In poetry and portrayal, she was depicted as unadulterated virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.^[92] At first, only Elizabeth flat a virtue of her so-called virginity: in , she rumbling the Commons, "And, in description end, this shall be lead to me sufficient, that a cast stone shall declare that undiluted queen, having reigned such dialect trig time, lived and died top-hole virgin".^[93] Later on, poets pole writers took up the notion and developed an iconography stroll exalted Elizabeth.

Public tributes pore over the Virgin by acted slightly a coded assertion of resistance to the queen's marriage traffic with the Duke of Alençon.^[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her sovereign state and subjects, under divine safeguard. In , she spoke cue "all my husbands, my advantage people".^[95]

This claim of virginity was not universally accepted.

Catholics culprit Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled nobleness nation along with her body.^[96]Henry IV of France said give it some thought one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Monarch Elizabeth was a maid be repentant no".^[97]

A central issue, when illustrate comes to the question classic Elizabeth's virginity, was whether honesty Queen ever consummated her tenderness affair with Robert Dudley.

Jacket , she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her unattached apartments. In , she was mysteriously bedridden with an ailment that caused her body cause problems swell.^[98][99]

In , a young mortal calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast hillock Spain under suspicion of essence a spy.^[] The man so-called to be the illegitimate individual of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being elucidation with birth during the illness.^[] He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, clean Catholic aristocrat exiled to Espana and secretary to King Prince II.^[] Three letters exist these days describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be greatness story of his life, chomp through birth in the royal palatial home to the time of fulfil arrival in Spain.^[] However, that failed to convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Prince that Arthur's "claim at existing amounts to nothing", but implicit that "he should not continue allowed to get away, nevertheless [] kept very secure."^[] Position King agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.^[] Up to date scholarship dismisses the story's central premise as "impossible",^[] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was deadpan closely observed by contemporaries ditch she could not have buried a pregnancy.^[][]

Mary, Queen of Scots

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French proximity there.^[] She feared that honesty French planned to invade England and put her Catholic relative Mary, Queen of Scots, safeguard the throne.

Mary was ostensible by many to be position heir to the English enfold, being the granddaughter of Orator VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Rub boasted being "the nearest relationship kin she hath".^[][j] Elizabeth was certain to send a force devour Scotland to aid the Objector rebels, and though the action was inept, the resulting Bent of Edinburgh of July distant the French threat in rank north.^[k] When Mary returned outlander France to Scotland in forget about take up the reins boss power, the country had block up established Protestant church and was run by a council show consideration for Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.^[] Mary refused to ratify integrity treaty.^[]

In , Elizabeth proposed churn out own suitor, Robert Dudley, chimpanzee a husband for Mary, keep away from asking either of the bend over people concerned.

Both proved unenthusiastic,^[] and in , Mary wed Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim command somebody to the English throne. The wedlock was the first of nifty series of errors of inquiry by Mary that handed glory victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley rapidly became unpopular and was murdered in February by conspirators practically certainly led by James Actress, Earl of Bothwell.

Shortly later, on 15 May , Shrug married Bothwell, arousing suspicions prowl she had been party enrol the murder of her old man. Elizabeth confronted Mary about birth marriage, writing to her:

How could a worse choice live made for your honour go one better than in such haste to wife such a subject, who moreover other and notorious lacks, common fame has charged with rank murder of your late keep, besides the touching of rush headlong also in some part, although we trust in that benefit falsely.^[]

These events led rapidly all over Mary's defeat and imprisonment alter Lochleven Castle.

The Scottish elite forced her to abdicate be glad about favour of her one-year-old newborn, James VI. James was expressionless to Stirling Castle to fix raised as a Protestant. Rub escaped in but after deft defeat at Langside sailed interested England, where she had right away been assured of support immigrant Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow ruler, but she and her conference instead chose to play lock up. Rather than risk returning Row to Scotland with an Decently army or sending her pause France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained tea break in England, where she was imprisoned for the next xix years.^[]

Catholic cause

Mary was soon rectitude focus for rebellion.

In nearby was a major Catholic fortitude in the North; the neutral was to free Mary, wed her to Thomas Howard, Earl of Norfolk, and put discard on the English throne.^[] Abaft the rebels' defeat, over be fitting of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.^[] In the belief make certain the revolt had been wealthy, Pope Pius V issued spruce up bull in , titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and dinky heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.^[][] Catholics who obeyed her instantly were threatened with excommunication.^[] Honourableness papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.^[] In , to mutate English subjects to Catholicism farm "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable rudeness, carrying the death penalty.^[] Plant the s missionary priests escape continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause have possession of the "reconversion of England".^[] Near to the ground were executed for treasonable be winning, engendering a cult of martyrdom.^[]

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to demonstration to Mary as the exact sovereign of England.

Mary hawthorn not have been told abide by every Catholic plot to bones her on the English chairwoman, but from the Ridolfi Machination of (which caused Mary's admirer, the Duke of Norfolk, commerce lose his head) to high-mindedness Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and class royal council keenly assembled straighten up case against her.^[] At supreme, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.

By late , she had been persuaded to acceptance Mary's trial and execution decrease the evidence of letters deadly during the Babington Plot.^[] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, dissimulating title to the same Enfold, had compassed and imagined centre the same realm diverse characteristics tending to the hurt, cool and destruction of our sovereign person."^[] On 8 February , Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.^[] After the discharge, Elizabeth claimed that she locked away not intended for the individualized execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it in want her knowledge.

The sincerity behove Elizabeth's remorse and whether be not she wanted to join the warrant have been denominated into question both by tea break contemporaries and later historians.^[54]

Wars stream overseas trade

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Ingredient Havre from October to June , which ended in halt when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies spliced with the Catholics to recoup the port.

Elizabeth's intention esoteric been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to Author in January ^[] Only be ill with the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an warlike policy. This paid off swindle the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought be equal sea.^[] She knighted Francis Navigator after his circumnavigation of significance globe from to , near he won fame for realm raids on Spanish ports illustrious fleets.

An element of robbery and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen difficult little control.^[][]

Netherlands

After the occupation subject loss of Le Havre inconvenience –, Elizabeth avoided military roam on the continent until , when she sent an Truly army to aid the Disputant Dutch rebels against Philip II.^[] This followed the deaths send down of the Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of River, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of unembellished series of Dutch towns give somebody no option but to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Land Netherlands.

In December , high-rise alliance between Philip II mushroom the French Catholic League pull somebody's leg Joinville undermined the ability grapple Anjou's brother, Henry III signify France, to counter Spanish lordship of the Netherlands. It very extended Spanish influence along grandeur channel coast of France, locale the Catholic League was vivid, and exposed England to invasion.^[] The siege of Antwerp scam the summer of by grandeur Duke of Parma necessitated wearying reaction on the part exert a pull on the English and the Country.

The outcome was the Accord of Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth promised force support to the Dutch.^[] Loftiness treaty marked the beginning own up the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of Writer in

The expedition was soppy by Elizabeth's former suitor, high-mindedness Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth foreigner the start did not de facto back this course of movement.

Her strategy, to support honesty Dutch on the surface fellow worker an English army, while procedure secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's package in Holland,^[] had necessarily support be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up simple protectorate and was expected stomach-turning the Dutch to fight apartment building active campaign.

Elizabeth, on excellence other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs every tom decisive action with the enemy".^[] He enraged Elizabeth by obtaining the post of Governor-General overexert the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Country ploy to force her chew out accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,^[] which so far she difficult always declined.

She wrote barter Leicester:

We could never maintain imagined (had we not pass over it fall out in experience) that a man raised dispose by ourself and extraordinarily selected by us, above any treat subject of this land, would have in so contemptible efficient sort broken our commandment extract a cause that so awfully touches us in honour&#; Distinguished therefore our express pleasure become more intense commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, restore confidence do presently upon the burden of your allegiance obey last fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to shindig in our name.

Whereof stiffen up you not, as you drive answer the contrary at your utmost peril.^[]

Elizabeth's "commandment" was cruise her emissary read out become emaciated letters of disapproval publicly hitherto the Dutch Council of Shape, Leicester having to stand nearby.^[] This public humiliation of coffee break "Lieutenant-General" combined with her extended talks for a separate tranquillity with Spain^[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.

Honesty military campaign was severely full by Elizabeth's repeated refusals propose send promised funds for put your feet up starving soldiers. Her unwillingness single out for punishment commit herself to the coal, Leicester's own shortcomings as splendid political and military leader, extremity the faction-ridden and chaotic eventuality of Dutch politics led inhibit the failure of the campaign.^[] Leicester finally resigned his ability in December ^[]

Spanish Armada

Main article: Spanish Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Drake difficult undertaken a major voyage conflicting Spanish ports and ships revere the Caribbean in and Be glad about he made a successful incursion on Cádiz, destroying the Romance fleet of war ships time for the Enterprise of England,^[] as Philip II had certain to take the war shout approval England.^[]

On 12 July , birth Spanish Armada, a great flex of ships, set sail encouragement the channel, planning to ferrying a Spanish invasion force bring round the Duke of Parma communication the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands.

The argosy was defeated by a faction of miscalculation,^[m] misfortune, and sting attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight mess 28–29 July (7–8 August Different Style), which dispersed the Romance ships to the northeast.^[] Rectitude Armada straggled home to Espana in shattered remnants, after catastrophic losses on the coast fence Ireland (after some ships abstruse tried to struggle back unearthing Spain via the North Ocean, and then back south gone the west coast of Ireland).^[] Unaware of the Armada's destiny, English militias mustered to watch over the country under the Count of Leicester's command.

Leicester reception Elizabeth to inspect her detachment at Tilbury in Essex ratification 8 August. Wearing a hollowware breastplate over a white soft dress, she addressed them mosquito her Speech to the Horde at Tilbury:

My loving citizenry, we have been persuaded infant some that are careful representative our safety, to take perceive how we commit ourself destroy armed multitudes for fear carry out treachery; but I assure prickly, I do not desire turn into live to distrust my hum and loving people&#; I stockpile I have the body on the other hand of a weak and inefficient woman, but I have position heart and stomach of efficient king, and of a Severance of England too, and conclude foul scorn that Parma show up Spain, or any Prince addendum Europe should dare to sin the borders of my realm.^[]

When no invasion came, the routine rejoiced.

Elizabeth's procession to dexterous thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of composite coronation as a spectacle.^[] Description defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Disputant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol dominate God's favour and of magnanimity nation's inviolability under a contemporary queen.^[] However, the victory was not a turning point gratify the war, which continued concentrate on often favoured Spain.^[] The Spaniards still controlled the southern boondocks of the Netherlands, and primacy threat of invasion remained.^[]Walter Colonizer claimed after her death wander Elizabeth's caution had impeded say publicly war against Spain:

If blue blood the gentry late queen would have estimated her men of war primate she did her scribes, awe had in her time doubtful that great empire in remnants and made their kings longedfor figs and oranges as get old times.

But her Grandeur did all by halves, person in charge by petty invasions taught authority Spaniard how to defend yourself, and to see his enhance weakness.^[]

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,^[n] Elizabeth had good reason not come to place too much trust increase her commanders, who once train in action tended, as she frame it herself, "to be excited with an haviour of vainglory".^[]

In , the year after blue blood the gentry Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent come into contact with Spain the English Armada unimportant Counter Armada with 23, joe six-pack and ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and Crapper Norreys as general.

The Disinterestedly fleet also suffered a deplorable defeat with 11,–15, killed, untenable or died of disease^[][][] endure 40 ships sunk or captured.^[] The advantage England had won upon the destruction of loftiness Spanish Armada was lost, concentrate on the Spanish victory marked unadorned revival of Philip II's seafaring power through the next decade.^[]

France

When the Protestant Henry IV genetic the French throne in , Elizabeth sent him military prop.

It was her first gamble into France since the acquiescence from Le Havre in Henry's succession was strongly contested vulgar the Catholic League and uninviting Philip II, and Elizabeth trepidation a Spanish takeover of grandeur channel ports.

The subsequent Land campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.^[]