Leonid brezhnev biography summary graphic organizer

Leader of the Soviet Agreement from 1964 to 1982

"Brezhnev" redirects here. For other uses, look out over Brezhnev (disambiguation).

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev^[b][c] (19 December 1906 – 10 November 1982)^[4] was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of decency Communist Party of the Land Union from 1964 until monarch death in 1982, and Head of the Presidium of rendering Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 1960 to 1964 extra again from 1977 to 1982.

His 18-year term as Communal Secretary was second only exchange Joseph Stalin's in duration.

Brezhnev was born to a pleb family in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire. Astern the results of the Oct Revolution were finalized with loftiness creation of the Soviet Conjoining, Brezhnev joined the Communist party's youth league in 1923 already becoming an official party colleague in 1929.

When Nazi Frg invaded the Soviet Union shoulder June 1941, he joined rendering Red Army as a official and rose rapidly through glory ranks to become a important general during World War II. Following the war's end, Statesman was promoted to the party's Central Committee in 1952 direct became a full member dead weight the Politburo by 1957. Enjoy 1964, he consolidated enough arduousness to replace Nikita Khrushchev in the same way First Secretary of the CPSU, the most powerful position flat the country.

During his designate, Brezhnev's governance improved the Land Union's international standing while become constant the position of its tenacity party at home. Whereas Statesman regularly enacted policies without consulting the Politburo, Brezhnev was cautious to minimize dissent among interpretation party elite by reaching decisions through consensus thereby restoring honesty semblance of collective leadership.

Likewise, while pushing for détente among the two Cold War superpowers, he achieved nuclear parity hash up the United States and strong Moscow's dominion over Central dominant Eastern Europe. Furthermore, the bulky arms buildup and widespread soldierly interventionism under Brezhnev's leadership well expanded Soviet influence abroad, addon in the Middle East swallow Africa.

By the mid-1970s, abundant observers argued the Soviet Agreement had surpassed the United States to become the world's pipeline military power.

Conversely, Brezhnev's take little for political reform ushered detect an era of socioeconomic dwindle referred to as the Generation of Stagnation. In addition proficient pervasive corruption and falling budgetary growth, this period was defined by an increasing technological emptiness between the Soviet Union endure the United States.

After 1975, Brezhnev's health rapidly deteriorated refuse he increasingly withdrew from worldwide affairs despite maintaining his be a magnet for on power. He died disclose 10 November 1982 and was succeeded as general secretary from one side to the ot Yuri Andropov. Upon coming lay at the door of power in 1985, Mikhail Statesman denounced Brezhnev's government for lying inefficiency and inflexibility before debut a campaign to liberalise goodness Soviet Union.

Notwithstanding the backfire to his regime's policies interior the mid-1980s, Brezhnev's rule has received consistently high approval ratings in public polls conducted encumber post-Soviet Russia.

Early life playing field early career

1906–1939: Origins

Brezhnev was native on 19 December 1906 compact Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) in the interior the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of greatness Russian Empire, to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev (1874–1934) and cap wife, Natalia Denisovna Mazalova (1886–1975).

His father lived in Brezhnevo (Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia) before moving to Kamenskoye. Justness parents of Brezhnev's mother came from Yenakiieve.^[5] Brezhnev's ethnicity was given as Ukrainian in selected documents, including his passport,^[6][7][8] stake Russian in others.^[9] A explanation confirming that he regarded man as a Russian can affront found in his book Memories (1979), where he wrote: "And so, according to nationality, Mad am Russian, I am neat as a pin proletarian, a hereditary metallurgist."^[11]

Like innumerable youths in the years back end the Russian Revolution of 1917, he received a technical nurture, at first in land government and then in metallurgy.

Sand graduated from the Kamenskoye Science Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer in prestige iron and steel industries style eastern Ukraine.

Lorenz florendo biography of donald

Brezhnev connected the Communist Party youth splitting up, the Komsomol, in 1923, extremity the Party itself in 1929. From 1935 to 1936 do something completed the compulsory term be defeated military service. After taking courses at a tank school, noteworthy served as a political functionary in a tank factory.

During Stalin's Great Purge, Brezhnev was one of many apparatchiks who exploited the resulting openings play a role the government and the function to advance rapidly in integrity regime's ranks.

In 1936, unquestionable became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum (a technical college) and was transferred to blue blood the gentry regional center of Dnipropetrovsk. Cede May 1937, he became surrogate chairman of the Kamenskoye reserve soviet. In May 1938, provision Nikita Khrushchev had taken trap of the Ukrainian communist challenging, he was appointed head be more or less the propaganda department of honesty Dnipropetrovsk regional communist party, extra later, in 1939, a local Party Secretary, in charge give an account of the city's defense industries.

Brains, he took the first work toward building a network donation supporters which came to replica known as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" that would greatly aid coronate rise to power.

1941–1945: Fake War II

When Nazi Germanyinvaded depiction Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, Brezhnev was, like maximum middle-ranking Party officials, immediately drafted.

He worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk's industries before the city hide to the Germans on 26 August, and then was allotted as a political commissar. Barred enclosure October, Brezhnev was made replacement of political administration for honesty Southern Front, with the row of Brigade-Commissar (Colonel).

When the Germans occupied Ukraine in 1942, Statesman was sent to the Chain as deputy head of civic administration of the Transcaucasian Mask.

In April 1943 he became head of the Political Authority of the 18th Army. After that year, the 18th Horde became part of the Ordinal Ukrainian Front, as the Insensitive Army regained the initiative ahead advanced westward through Ukraine. High-mindedness Front's senior political commissar was Nikita Khrushchev, who had trim Brezhnev's career since the prewar years.

Brezhnev had met Solon in 1931, shortly after joined the Party, and as take action continued his rise through decency ranks, he became Khrushchev's protégé. At the end of picture war in Europe, Brezhnev was chief political commissar of influence 4th Ukrainian Front, which entered Prague in May 1945, care the German surrender.

Rise to power

Promotion to the Central Committee

Brezhnev heraldry sinister the Soviet Army with loftiness rank of major general hill August 1946.

In May 1946, he was appointed the prime secretary of the Zaporizhzhia district party committee, where his standin was Andrei Kirilenko, one suffer defeat the most important members signal your intention the Dnipropetrovsk Mafia.^{[citation needed]} Back end working on reconstruction projects enfold Ukraine, he returned to Metropolis in January 1948 as district first party secretary.

In 1950 Brezhnev became a deputy take in the Supreme Soviet of depiction Soviet Union, the Soviet Union's highest legislative body. In July that year he was stalemate to the Moldavian SSR lecturer appointed Party First Secretary attention the Communist Party of Moldavia, where he was responsible fancy completing the introduction of usual agriculture.

Konstantin Chernenko, a firm addition to the "mafia", was working in Moldova as belief of the agitprop department, slab one of the officials Solon brought with him from Yekaterinoslav was the future USSR See to of the Interior, Nikolai Shchelokov.

In 1952, Brezhnev met plus Stalin who subsequently promoted him to the Communist Party's Vital Committee as a candidate participant of the Presidium (formerly dignity Politburo) and made him straighten up member of the Secretariat.

Followers Stalin's death in March 1953, Brezhnev was demoted to leading deputy head of the state directorate of the Army courier Navy.

Advancement under Khrushchev

Brezhnev's maecenas Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as Habitual Secretary, while Khrushchev's rival Georgy Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Chairwoman of the Council of Ministers.

Brezhnev sided with Khrushchev destroy Malenkov, but only for a sprinkling years. In February 1954, sharptasting was appointed second secretary treat the Communist Party of nobleness Kazakh SSR, and was promoted to General Secretary in Might, following Khrushchev's victory over Malenkov. On the surface his little was simple: to make representation new lands agriculturally productive.

Choose by ballot reality, Brezhnev became involved rejoinder the development of the Country missile and nuclear arms programs, including the Baykonur Cosmodrome. Ethics initially successful Virgin Lands Action soon became unproductive and unsuccessful to solve the growing State food crisis. Brezhnev was associate with to Moscow in 1956.

Say publicly harvest in the years multitude the Virgin Lands Campaign was disappointing, which would have lesion his political career had let go remained in Kazakhstan.

In February 1956 Brezhnev returned to Moscow stand for was made candidate member freedom the Politburo assigned in run of the defence industry, excellence space program including the Baykonur Cosmodrome, heavy industry, and funds construction.^[17] He was now uncluttered senior member of Khrushchev's set attendants, and in June 1957 why not?

backed Khrushchev in his endeavour with Malenkov's Stalinist old central in the Party leadership, description so-called "Anti-Party Group". Following influence Stalinists' defeat, Brezhnev became topping full member of the Politburo. In May 1960, he was promoted to the post finance Chairman of the Presidium provide the Supreme Soviet, making him the nominal head of build in, although the real power resided with Khrushchev as First Wordsmith of the Soviet Communist Slender and Premier.

Replacement of Khrushchev chimp Soviet leader

Khrushchev's position as Unusual leader was secure until trouble 1962, but as he elderly, he grew more erratic trip his performance undermined the persuade of his fellow leaders.

Honesty Soviet Union's mounting economic stress also increased the pressure fix Khrushchev's leadership. Brezhnev remained apparently loyal to Khrushchev, but became involved in a 1963 estate to remove him from overwhelm, possibly playing a leading part. Also in 1963, Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov, another Khrushchev protégé, as Secretary of the Inner Committee, positioning him as Khrushchev's likely successor.

Khrushchev made him Second Secretary, or deputy settlement leader, in 1964.

After returning steer clear of Scandinavia and Czechoslovakia in Oct 1964, Khrushchev, unaware of prestige plot, went on holiday back Pitsunda resort on the Sooty Sea. Upon his return, crown Presidium officers congratulated him aspire his work in office.

Anastas Mikoyan visited Khrushchev, hinting rove he should not be as well complacent about his present circumstance. Vladimir Semichastny, head of character KGB, was a crucial item of the conspiracy, as detach was his duty to warn Khrushchev if anyone was intention against his leadership. Nikolay Ignatov, whom Khrushchev had sacked, discreetly requested the opinion of many Central Committee members.

After dire false starts, fellow conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev on 12 October and requested that crystal-clear return to Moscow to settle the state of Soviet husbandry. Finally, Khrushchev understood what was happening, and said to Mikoyan, "If it's me who appreciation the question, I will crowd together make a fight of it." While a minority headed coarse Mikoyan wanted to remove Statesman from the office of Twig Secretary but retain him orang-utan the Chairman of the Diet of Ministers, the majority, wary by Brezhnev, wanted to depart him from active politics altogether.

Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny appealed transmit the Central Committee, blaming Statesman for economic failures, and accusative him of voluntarism and shameful behavior.

Influenced by Brezhnev's alinement, Politburo members voted on 14 October to remove Khrushchev free yourself of office. Some members of dignity Central Committee wanted him colloquium undergo punishment of some nice, but Brezhnev, who had by that time been assured the office understanding the General Secretary, saw around reason to punish Khrushchev other.

Brezhnev was appointed First Rustle up on the same day, on the contrary at the time was deemed to be a transitional emperor, who would only "keep nobleness shop" until another leader was appointed.Alexei Kosygin was appointed imagination of government, and Mikoyan was retained as head of refurbish. Brezhnev and his companions founded the general party line free after Stalin's death but mat that Khrushchev's reforms had self-possessed much of the Soviet Union's stability.

One reason for Khrushchev's ouster was that he continuously overruled other party members, suggest was, according to the plotters, "in contempt of the party's collective ideals". The Soviet product Pravda wrote of new lasting themes such as collective guidance, scientific planning, consultation with experts, organisational regularity and the immoderation of schemes.

When Khrushchev formerly larboard the public spotlight, there was no popular commotion, as crest Soviet citizens, including the masterminds, anticipated a period of normalisation, steady development of Soviet community and continuing economic growth take away the years ahead.

Political scientist Martyr W. Breslauer has compared Solon and Brezhnev as leaders.

Settle down argues they took different transport to build legitimate authority, aide on their personalities and position state of public opinion. Solon worked to decentralize the reach a decision system and empower local management, which had been wholly subservient; Brezhnev sought to centralize go, going so far as regarding weaken the roles of character other members of the Medial Committee and the Politburo.^[27]

1964–1982: Ruler of the Soviet Union

Further information: History of the Soviet Wholeness accord (1964–1982)

Consolidation of power

Further information: Current leadership in the Soviet Union

Upon replacing Khrushchev hoot the party's First Secretary, Solon became the de jure principal authority of the Soviet Agreement.

However, he was initially least to govern as part call up an unofficial Triumvirate (also notable by its Russian name Troika) alongside the country's Premier, Alexei Kosygin, and Nikolai Podgorny, spruce up Secretary of the CPSU Essential Committee and later Chairman subtract the Presidium.^[28][29] Due to Khrushchev's disregard for the rest mean the Politburo upon combining consummate leadership of the party business partner that of the Soviet control, a plenum of the Basic Committee in October 1964 forbade any single individual from occupancy both the offices of Public Secretary and Premier.

This series would persist until the clue 1970s when Brezhnev firmly bound 1 his position as the nearly powerful figure in the Land Union.

During his consolidation declining power, Brezhnev first had shout approval contend with the ambitions model Alexander Shelepin, the former director of the KGB and emerge head of the Party-State Regulate Committee.

In early 1965, Shelepin began calling for the refurbishment of "obedience and order" backing bowels the Soviet Union as almost all of his own bid know seize power. Towards this top, he exploited his control disorganize both state and party meat to leverage support within probity regime. Recognizing Shelepin as hoaxer imminent threat to his drive, Brezhnev mobilized the Soviet longsuffering leadership to remove him implant the Party-State Control Committee in the past having the body dissolved comprehensively on 6 December 1965.

By dignity end of 1965, Brezhnev esoteric Podgorny removed from the Thoroughbred, thereby significantly curtailing the latter's ability to build support internal the party apparatus.

In primacy ensuing years, Podgorny's network go supporters was steadily eroded slightly the protégés he cultivated encompass his rise to power were removed from the Central Committee.^[33] By 1977, Brezhnev was enduring enough in his position strengthen replace Podgorny as head allowance state and remove him differ the Politburo.^[34][35]

After sidelining Shelepin deliver Podgorny as threats to sovereign leadership in 1965, Brezhnev bound his attentions to his outstanding political rival, Alexei Kosygin.

Move the 1960s, U.S. National Retreat Advisor Henry Kissinger initially professed Kosygin to be the governing leader of Soviet foreign programme in the Politburo. Within say publicly same timeframe, Kosygin was along with in charge of economic regulation in his role as Boss of the Council of Ministers. However, his position was broken following his enactment of assorted economic reforms in 1965 depart collectively came to be influential within the Party as distinction "Kosygin reforms".

Due largely dare coinciding with the Prague Well 2 (whose sharp departure from integrity Soviet model led to warmth armed suppression in 1968), blue blood the gentry reforms provoked a backlash in the midst the party's old guard who proceeded to flock to Statesman and strengthened his position in quod the Soviet leadership.

In 1969, Brezhnev further expanded his command following a clash with In a tick Secretary Mikhail Suslov and additional party officials who thereafter under no circumstances challenged his supremacy within rank Politburo.^[37]

Brezhnev was adept at affairs of state within the Soviet power form. He was a team performer and never acted rashly vague hastily.

Unlike Khrushchev, he exact not make decisions without foremost consultation from his colleagues, promote was always willing to hark their opinions. During the initially 1970s, Brezhnev consolidated his servant position. In 1977, he calculated the retirement of Podgorny direct became once again Chairman suggest the Presidium of the Loftiest Soviet of the Soviet Combining, making this position equivalent presage that of an executive principal.

While Kosygin remained Premier waiting for shortly before his death prickly 1980 (replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov as Premier), Brezhnev was glory dominant figure in the Land Union from the mid-1970s^[39] on hold his death in 1982.

Domestic policies

Ideological Development

Main article: Real socialism

Brezhnev has defined the iconic "Developed Socialism" as the Soviet-style socialism, which he believed had successfully constructed socialism in the Soviet Unity and reached Vladimir Lenin's transformation stage from socialism to bolshevism.

Brezhnev emphasized the advanced subject developments in the USSR resume full electrification of the express, the use of nuclear capacity in production, computer planning, in that well as a highly self-propelling agriculture. He believed that wrestle social strata within the USSR were closer to each joker than ever before due say nice things about the highly developed productive pretence in the country.

Therefore, glory dictatorship of the proletariat has, according to Brezhnev, moved in the vicinity of a people's government. Brezhnev held that all socialist countries would go through the same leninist development and social transformation check the Soviet model regardless depose their national and material conditions.^[40]

Repression

Brezhnev's stabilization policy included ending prestige liberalizing reforms of Khrushchev, discipline clamping down on cultural autonomy.

During the Khrushchev years, Solon had supported the leader's denunciations of Stalin's arbitrary rule, nobility rehabilitation of many of picture victims of Stalin's purges, stream the cautious liberalization of Council intellectual and cultural policy. Notwithstanding, as soon as he became leader of the Soviet Undividedness, he began to reverse that process, and developed an to an increasing extent authoritarian and conservative attitude.

By glory mid-1970s, there were an held 5,000 political and religious prisoners across the Soviet Union, direct in grievous conditions and support from malnutrition.

Many of these prisoners were considered by ethics Soviet state to be in the mind unfit and were hospitalized incorporate mental asylums across the Land Union. Under Brezhnev's rule, rendering KGB infiltrated most, if watchword a long way all, anti-government organisations, which assured that there was little promote to no opposition against him by way of alternative his power base.

Petar matic biography

However, Brezhnev refrained from the all-out violence forget under Stalin's rule. The nuisance of the writers Yuli Prophet and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966, the first such public trials since Stalin's reign, marked rectitude reversion to a repressive native policy. Under Yuri Andropov distinction state security service (in probity form of the KGB) regained some of the powers leaving had enjoyed under Stalin, despite the fact that there was no return come to the purges of the Decennium and 1940s, and Stalin's present remained largely discredited among significance Soviet intelligentsia.

Economics

Economic growth until 1973

Between 1960 and 1970, Soviet good housekeeping output increased by 3% annual.

Industry also improved: during authority Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970), integrity output of factories and mines increased by 138% compared feel 1960. While the Politburo became aggressively anti-reformist, Kosygin was aptly to convince both Brezhnev bear the politburo to leave rendering reformist communist leader János Kádár of the Hungarian People's Kingdom alone because of an pecuniary reform entitled New Economic Apparatus (NEM), which granted limited commission for the establishment of market markets.

In the Polish People's Republic, another approach was hard at it in 1970 under the predominance of Edward Gierek; he putative that the government needed Brown-nose loans to facilitate the hasty growth of heavy industry. Excellence Soviet leadership gave its approbation for this, as the Council Union could not afford with maintain its massive subsidy home in on the Eastern Bloc in rendering form of cheap oil with the addition of gas exports.

The Soviet Unity did not accept all kinds of reforms, an example yield the Warsaw Pactinvasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response inherit Alexander Dubček's reforms. Under Solon, the Politburo abandoned Khrushchev's decentalisation experiments. By 1966, two time eon after taking power, Brezhnev sour the Regional Economic Councils, which were organized to manage decency regional economies of the Country Union.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan untrammelled a change: for the be in first place time industrial consumer products out-produced industrial capital goods.

Consumer stuff such as watches, furniture added radios were produced in superfluity. The plan still left primacy bulk of the state's consumption in industrial capital-goods production. That outcome was not seen by reason of a positive sign for say publicly future of the Soviet homeland by the majority of abandon party functionaries within the government; by 1975 consumer goods were expanding 9% slower than profit-making capital-goods.

The policy continued in spite of Brezhnev's commitment to make expert rapid shift of investment suggest satisfy Soviet consumers and steer to an even higher penitent of living. This did mass happen.

During 1928–1973, the Soviet Junction was growing economically at put in order faster pace than the Leagued States and Western Europe.^{[citation needed]} However, objective comparisons are arduous.

The USSR was hampered soak the effects of World Armed conflict II, which had left maximum of the western USSR misrepresent ruins; however, Western aid see Soviet espionage in the edit 1941–1945 (culminating in cash, stuff and equipment deliveries for noncombatant and industrial purposes) had legalized the Russians to leapfrog myriad Western economies in the swelling of advanced technologies, particularly organize the fields of nuclear application, radio communications, agriculture and cumbersome manufacturing.

By the early Decennium, the Soviet Union had significance world's second largest industrial entitlement, and produced more steel, snake, pig-iron, cement and tractors puzzle any other country. Before 1973, the Soviet economy was enlargeable at a faster rate go one better than that of the American cutback (albeit by a very miniature margin).

The USSR also aloof a steady pace with picture economies of Western Europe. Among 1964 and 1973, the Land economy stood at roughly portion the output per head use up Western Europe and a short more than one third meander of the U.S.^[59] In 1973, the process of catching extra with the rest of greatness West came to an see the point of as the Soviet Union hide further and further behind conduct yourself computer technology, which proved dominant for the Western economies.^[60] Shy 1973 the Era of Lassitude was apparent.^[61]

Economic stagnation until 1982

The Era of Stagnation, a name coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was attributed to a compilation run through factors, including the ongoing "arms race"; the Soviet Union's preference to participate in international put money on (thus abandoning the idea sponsor economic isolation) while ignoring undulate occurring in Western societies; inflated authoritarianism in Soviet society; prestige invasion of Afghanistan; the bureaucracy's transformation into an undynamic gerontocracy; lack of economic reform; penetrating political corruption, and other animate problems within the country.^[62] Domestically, social stagnation was stimulated timorous the growing demands of unschooled workers, labor shortages and unmixed decline in productivity and have discipline.

While Brezhnev, albeit "sporadically", through Alexei Kosygin, attempted put your name down reform the economy in glory late 1960s and 1970s, inaccuracy failed to produce any guaranteed results. One of these reforms was the economic reform entity 1965, initiated by Kosygin, comb its origins are often derived back to the Khrushchev Collection.

The reform was ultimately finished by the Central Committee, even though the Committee admitted that cheap problems did exist. After fetching leader of the Soviet Undividedness, Gorbachev would characterize the restraint under Brezhnev's rule as "the lowest stage of socialism".^[64]

Based cause its surveillance, the CIA rumored that the Soviet economy weak in the 1970s upon movement 57% of American GNP.

In spite of that, beginning around 1975, economic expansion began to decline at slightest in part due to illustriousness regime's sustained prioritization of gigantic industry and military spending discovery consumer goods. Additionally, Soviet agronomics was unable to feed picture urban population, let alone replace for a rising standard corporeal living which the government affianced as the fruits of "mature socialism" and on which business productivity depended.

Ultimately, the Muster growth rate slowed to 1% to 2% per year. By reason of GNP growth rates decreased hamper the 1970s from the bank held in the 1950s reprove 1960s, they likewise began ballot vote lag behind that of Liaison Europe and the United States. Eventually, the stagnation reached spiffy tidy up point that the United States began growing an average strain 1% per year above magnanimity growth rate of the Country Union.

The stagnation of the Land economy was fueled even newfound by the Soviet Union's ever-widening technological gap with the Westside.

Due to the cumbersome procedures of the centralized planning organized whole, Soviet industries were incapable loom the innovation needed to fuse public demand.^[66] This was mega notable in the field comprehensive computers. In response to nobleness lack of uniform standards gather peripherals and digital capacity meat the Soviet computer industry, Brezhnev's regime ordered an end take a break all independent computer development wallet required all future models collect be based on the IBM/360.^[67] However, following the adoption sign over the IBM/360 system, the Land Union was never able switch over build enough platforms, let pass up improve on its design.^[68][69] Chimp its technology continued to befit behind the West, the State Union increasingly resorted to plagiary Western designs.^[67]

The last significant meliorate undertaken by the Kosygin command, and some believe in loftiness pre-perestroika era, was a lode decision of the Central Convention and the Council of Ministers named "Improving planning and weather the effects of the worthless mechanism on raising the effectuality in production and improving honesty quality of work", more usually known as the 1979 transition.

The reform, in contrast agree the 1965 reform, sought destroy increase the central government's common involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries. With Kosygin's death in 1980, and due to his inheritress or inheritr Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach analysis economics, very little of interpretation reform was actually carried out.^[70]

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan of loftiness Soviet Union delivered a shy defective result: a change in increase from 5 to 4%.

Past the earlier Tenth Five-Year Procedure, there had been target fortify 6.1% growth, but this was not met. Brezhnev was honest to defer economic collapse lump trading with Western Europe take precedence the Arab World. The Country Union still outproduced the In partnership States in the heavy grind sector during the Brezhnev epoch. Another dramatic result of Brezhnev's rule was that certain East Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Soviet Union.

Agricultural policy

Brezhnev's agricultural policy reinforced tacit ways of organizing collective farms and enforced output quotas centrally.

Although there was a record-high state investment in farming by the 1970s, the evaluation reminiscent of agricultural output continued to memorable part on the grain harvest. Disdain some improvement, there were similar problems such as insufficient lackey production of fodder crops tolerate a declining sugar beet era.

Brezhnev attempted to address these issues by increasing state judge and allowing privately owned plots to be larger. However, these actions were not effective disturb solving fundamental problems like span shortage of skilled workers, smashing ruined rural culture, and unfitting farm machinery for small aggregated farms. A significant reform was necessary, but it was sob supported due to ideological reprove political considerations.

Brezhnev's agricultural custom reinforced the conventional methods kindle organizing the collective farms. Shop quotas continued to be ordained centrally. Khrushchev's policy of combination farms was continued by Statesman, because he shared Khrushchev's concern that bigger kolkhozes would augment productivity.

Brezhnev pushed for block increase in state investments mud farming, which amounted to button all-time high in the Decennary of 27% of all offer investment – this figure did yowl include investments in farm funds. In 1981 alone, 33 billion U.S. dollars (by contemporary exchange rate) was invested into agriculture.

Agricultural harvest in 1980 was 21% more advanced than the average production attack between 1966 and 1970.

Corn crop output increased by 18%. These improved results were categorize encouraging. In the Soviet Undividedness the criterion for assessing rural output was the grain origin. The import of cereal, which began under Khrushchev, had limit fact become a normal circumstance by Soviet standards. When Solon had difficulties sealing commercial ocupation agreements with the United States, he went elsewhere, such primate to Argentina.

Trade was defensible because the Soviet Union's drudge production of fodder crops was severely deficient. Another sector desert was hitting the wall was the sugar beet harvest, which had declined by 2% intensity the 1970s. Brezhnev's way avail yourself of resolving these issues was farm increase state investment. Politburo colleague Gennady Voronov advocated for glory division of each farm's stint into what he called "links".

These "links" would be entrusted with specific functions, such sort to run a farm's farm unit. His argument was defer the larger the work vocation, the less responsible they change. This program had been puppet to Joseph Stalin by Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s nearby had been opposed by Statesman before and after Stalin's ephemerality.

Voronov was also unsuccessful; Solon turned him down, and harvest 1973 he was removed strange the Politburo.

Experimentation with "links" was not disallowed on a neighbourhood basis, with Mikhail Gorbachev, greatness then First Secretary of authority Stavropol Regional Committee, experimenting delete links in his region. Manner the meantime, the Soviet government's involvement in agriculture was, according to Robert Service, otherwise "unimaginative" and "incompetent".

Facing mounting influence with agriculture, the Politburo appear c rise a resolution titled, "On magnanimity Further Development of Specialisation become more intense Concentration of Agricultural Production disseminate the Basis of Inter-Farm Co-operation and Agro-Industrial Integration". The fraud ordered kolkhozes close to initiate other to collaborate in their efforts to increase production.

Tenuous the meantime, the state's subsidies to the food-and-agriculture sector exact not prevent bankrupt farms running away operating and rises in rendering price of produce were balance out by rises in the fee of oil and other reach an agreement. By 1977, oil cost 84% more than it did mission the late 1960s. The bill of other resources had as well climbed by the late 1970s.

Brezhnev's answer to these problems was to issue two decrees, only in 1977 and one amuse 1981, which called for make illegal increase in the maximum reputation of privately owned plots confidential the Soviet Union to portion a hectare.

These measures cooling important obstacles for the revisit of agricultural output but outspoken not solve the problem. Misstep Brezhnev, private plots yielded 30% of the national agricultural run when they cultivated only 4% of the land. This was seen by some as endorsement that de-collectivization was necessary run into prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such drastic foundation due to ideological and civic interests.

The underlying problems were the growing shortage of positive workers, a wrecked rural grace, the payment of workers jacket proportion to the quantity to some extent than the quality of their work, and too large house machinery for the small accommodate farms and the roadless territory. In the face of that, Brezhnev's only options were artistry such as large land recovery and irrigation projects, or have a high regard for course, radical reform.

Society

Over the 18 years that Brezhnev ruled prestige Soviet Union, average income botchup head increased by half; three-fourths of this growth came groove the 1960s and early Seventies.

During the second half strip off Brezhnev's premiership, the average mode per head grew by one-quarter.^[76] In the first half exhaustive the Brezhnev period, income churlish head increased by 3.5% adequate annum; slightly less growth puzzle what it had been illustriousness previous years. This can last explained by Brezhnev's reversal love most of Khrushchev's policies.^[59] Ingestion per head rose by uncorrupted estimated 70% under Brezhnev, on the other hand with three-quarters of this sentiment happening before 1973 and inimitable one-quarter in the second division of his rule.^[77] Most carry the increase in consumer run in the early Brezhnev epoch can be attributed to greatness Kosygin reform.^[78]

When the USSR's low-cost growth stalled in the Seventies, the standard of living gleam housing quality improved significantly.^[80] On the other hand of paying more attention put up the shutters the economy, the Soviet ascendancy under Brezhnev tried to better the living standard in honesty Soviet Union by extending communal benefits.

This led to upshot increase, though a minor rob, in public support.^[64] The typical of living in the Slavonic Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) had fallen behind that exclude the Georgian Soviet Socialist Nation (GSSR) and the Estonian Council Socialist Republic (ESSR) under Brezhnev; this led many Russians run into believe that the policies very last the Soviet Government were suffering the Russian population.

The bring back usually moved workers from flavour job to another, which at the end of the day became an ineradicable feature efficient the Soviet industry. Government industries such as factories, mines final offices were staffed by unmanageable personnel who put a large effort into not doing their jobs; this ultimately led, according to Robert Service, to practised "work-shy workforce".

The Soviet Management had no effective counter-measure; give birth to was extremely difficult, if remote impossible to replace ineffective organization because of the country's absence of unemployment.

While some areas improved during the Brezhnev period, the majority of civilian employment deteriorated and living conditions come up with Soviet citizens fell rapidly.

Diseases were on the rise owing to of the decaying healthcare arrangement. The living space remained relatively small by First World pandect, with the average Soviet man living on 13.4 square metres. Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became homeless, most of them excitement in shacks, doorways and standing trams. Nutrition ceased to underpin in the late 1970s, thoroughly rationing of staple food revenue returned to Sverdlovsk for instance.

The state provided recreation facilities dowel annual holidays for hard-working persons.

Soviet trade unions rewarded careful members and their families succeed beach vacations in Crimea instruction Georgia.

Social rigidification became a popular feature of Soviet society. All along the Stalin era in character 1930s and 1940s, a usual labourer could expect promotion put the finishing touches to a white-collar job if put your feet up studied and obeyed Soviet administration.

In Brezhnev's Soviet Union that was not the case. Holders of attractive positions clung carry out them as long as possible; mere incompetence was not bizarre as a good reason in dismiss anyone. In this disperse, too, the Soviet society Solon passed on had become static.

Foreign and defense policies

Invasion of Czechoslovakia

The first crisis for Brezhnev's structure came in 1968, with class attempt by the Communist control in Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubček, to liberalize the Communist course (Prague Spring).

In July, Solon publicly denounced the Czechoslovak edge as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Discredit his hardline public statements, Statesman was not the one determined hardest for the use help military force in Czechoslovakia in the way that the issue was before description Politburo. Archival evidence suggests depart Brezhnev initially sought a outline compromise with the reform-friendly Czechoslovak government when their dispute came to a head.

However, shut in the end, Brezhnev concluded go off he would risk growing send somebody over the edge domestically and within the Southeastern bloc if he abstained pollute voted against Soviet intervention rip open Czechoslovakia.

As pressure mounted on him within the Soviet leadership tutorial "re-install a revolutionary government" propitious Prague, Brezhnev ordered the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, humbling Dubček's removal in August.

Masses the Soviet intervention, he fall over with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Šimon, then a member of high-mindedness Politburo of the Czechoslovak Socialist Party, and said, "If Irrational had not voted for Council armed assistance to Czechoslovakia sell something to someone would not be sitting close to today, but quite possibly Frantic wouldn't either." However, contrary cling on to the stabilizing effect envisioned uncongenial Moscow, the invasion served little a catalyst for further discrepancy in the Eastern Bloc.^{[citation needed]}

The Vietnam War

Under the rule work at Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Conjoining initially supported North Vietnam move on of "fraternal solidarity".

However, by reason of the war escalated, Khrushchev urged the North Vietnamese leadership finish give up the quest accuse liberating South Vietnam